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This article is about practices and beliefs in relation to various animals as food. For more discussion on religious views, see Unclean animals.
Swine are considered non-kosher ("unfit" or "unclean") in Judaism and haraam ("forbidden") in Islam
Taboo food and drinks are food and drink which people abstain from consuming for religious or cultural reasons.
Certain foods may be considered taboo by the rules promulgated by a religion concerning what is and what is not allowed to be eaten. The term is especially used in relation to Judaism and Islam, as well as the widespread Hindu prohibition on slaughtering sacred cows. Many religions include such rules, although they rarely reach the level of breadth and detail which is observed in Judaism and Islam.
These rules can cover such matters as permissible and impermissible foodstuffs, rules regarding how food is to be slaughtered, and prohibited combinations of food (some foods, even though permissible in themselves, are not allowed in combination). Some foods may also be prohibited during certain festivals, even though normally allowed; and some foods may be prohibited only to particular classes of people (e.g. priests), but allowed for others.
Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, Judaism prescribes a strict set of rules, called Kashrut, regarding what can and cannot be eaten. Certain denominations of Christianity also hold to these or similar rules. In Islamic practice, the laws of Haram and Halal dictate, among other things, certain foods which may not be eaten. Hindus, and Jains often follow religious directives to observe vegetarianism and avoid eating meat. Hinduism has no specific proscriptions against eating meat, so some Hindus do eat meat. However, many other Hindus apply the concept of "ahimsa" (non-violence) to their diet, so they advocate and practice forms of vegetarianism. Due to philosophical differences and dietary needs among many modern Indian Hindus, all meat is considered a taboo except mutton (usually in India the goat\'s flesh, or sometimes sheep\'s flesh), chicken and fish.
Australian Aborigines traditionally had personal totems. While religious practices varied from group to group, it was common that the eating of the totemic animal was considered taboo, either by the entire clan, or the individual with the personal totem.
Also comparable is the strong prohibition among Manchus against the eating of dog meat, which is a common part of the cuisine among the Manchus\' neighboring Northeastern Asian peoples - though in this case the prohibition is not grounded in a specific religious tradition. (The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog\'s fur, common among their neighbors).
Aside from conscious taboos there are unconscious cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. For example, even though there is no law against eating dog meat in the United States and Europe, it is widely considered unacceptable. In Southeast Asia, most countries excluding Vietnam rarely consume dog meat either because of Islamic or Buddhist values or animal rights as in the Philippines. Similarly, horse meat is rarely eaten in the US and UK, but is common in some parts of continental Europe and is considered a delicacy in Japan (basashi). Within a given society, some meats will be considered taboo simply because they are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff, not necessarily because the meat is considered repulsive in flavor, aroma, texture or appearance.
Some authorities impose cultural food taboos in the form of law. This is alleged to be dietary persecution and possibly human rights abuse[citation needed]. For example, even after resumption to Chinese rule, Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, imposed in colonial times. A fairly recent addition to cultural food taboos is that of eating the meat or eggs of endangered species or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include whales, sea turtles, and migratory birds.
The origin of food taboos is still being debated. Some claim they are a result of health considerations or other practical considerations,Harris, Marvin, Good to Eat, ISBN 0-04-306002-1 other say it\'s a result of human symbolic systems.Douglas, Mary, Purity and Danger, ISBN 0-415-28995-5
Both Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of amphibians
such as frogs and reptiles such as crocodiles and snakes. Nevertheless,
frogs are raised commercially in certain countries and frog legs are considered a delicacy in France, Portugal,Porter, Darwin & Prince, Danforth (2004), "3 - Settling into Lisbon", Frommer\'s Portugal, p. 94, ISBN 0764542826, <http://books.google.com/books?id=4qdPGh3Mr1wC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22frog+legs%22+portugal&source=web&ots=M7uC52OdD4&sig=PBHYKoLVv_0cOcqV6DinI3bD9_g>. Retrieved on 22 September 2007[dead link – history]
"Delectably flavored dishes include [...], frog legs in buttery garlic, [...]." China, Caribbean and in parts of the USA and India.
The snake\'s blood and bile is considered a male aphrodisiac and is often drunk along with the combination of rice wine.BBC News - China snake craze threatens crops. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.BBC - Holiday - Destinations - Vietnam. Retrieved on 2006-09-06. (from internet archive) Rattlesnake is eaten to a certain degree in southwestern USA and is available in specialty meat shops.BBC NEWS - Rattlesnake round-up draws crowds. Retrieved on 2006-09-06. Certain tribes living around Lake Turkana in Ethiopia regularly hunt crocodilesBBC - Tribe - Dassanech. Retrieved on 2007-02-06. and the consumption of crocodile meat and alligator meat can also be observed in countries such as Australia, Thailand, South Africa and the southeastern United States. In Australia the meat is typically available in some restaurants and specialty meat outlets.Queensland Government - Recipes and tips for cooking crocodile meat. Retrieved on 2006-08-22.KOORANA SALTWATER CROCODILE FARM, Central Queensland, Australia. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.
The meat of brown bears is eaten in several parts of the world, while polar bears are also traditionally consumed in Alaska. Bear meat must be cooked thoroughly as it can often be infected with trichinellosis. Trichinellosis Associated with Bear Meat. Retrieved on 2006-10-04. BBC News - Bear meat poisoning in Siberia. Retrieved on 2006-10-04. Finnish Food Safety Authority: Bear meat must be inspected before serving in restaurants. Retrieved on 2006-10-04. Polar Bear: Wildlife Notebook Series. Retrieved on 2006-10-04. Bears are not considered kosher in Judaism while all predatory terrestrial animals are haraam in Islam. Observant Jews and Muslims would therefore normally abstain from eating bear meat. Bear meat is not kosher!. Retrieved on 2006-10-04. The Fiqh of Halal and Haram Animals. Retrieved on 2006-10-04.
The Old Testament of the Bible (Leviticus 11:13) explicitly states that the eagle, vulture, and osprey are not to be eaten.Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg Holy Bible, O.T. Part 1, Douay-Rheims Version, Project Gutenberg. Large domesticated fowl such as chickens, turkeys, and ducks are commonly eaten in many cultures, along with their wild game counterparts.
Pigeons are raised and eaten in parts of the Middle East, Asia and Europe, where the young birds are known as "squab". Special towers are visible all over Egyptian villages, where these pigeons are raised. They are considered a delicacy served as a main course with rice. In North America, pigeons (as doves) are a hunted game bird Hunting and Fishing Regulations—Dove Hunting, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, <http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/hunting_smallgame.aspx#dove>. Retrieved on 2007-12-18Hunting and Fishing Regulations, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, <http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/seasons.aspx>. Retrieved on 2007-12-18Publication 298, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, <http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/PDF/pub298.pdf>. Retrieved on 2007-12-18Dove hunting in Tennessee, Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, <http://www.state.tn.us/twra/dovefields/doverules.html>. Retrieved on 2007-12-18 in many areas, however, urban pigeons are considered unfit for consumption.
Many people also find the thought of eating the meat of crows and other scavengers repulsive, as evidenced by the expression "eating crow", nevertheless an ethnic group in West Bengal known as Kakmara (literally: crow-hunters) regularly hunt crows for their meat. TWF India Off-Track - The crow-eaters, <http://www.twfindia.com/offTrackDetail1_16.10.05.asp>. Retrieved on 2008-01-8 Eating swans is generally considered unacceptable in Europe and the Americas,[citation needed] and the swan is a protected bird in England. All mute swans in Britain belong to the sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II, an historical quirk dating from the twelfth century."Muslim jailed for killing British queen\'s swan to break Ramadan fast", Middle East Times, November 23, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-07-31. Nevertheless, reports about the eating of swans are seen from time to time.Karina Longworth (July 31, 2005). Hacking Food: Eating Swan. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.Gillian Harris. "Composer may do bird for eating swan", The Times, March 19, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.
Small birds such as songbirds have also traditionally been eaten in the Middle East, Asia and some European cultures; one such dish is the Ambelopoulia of Cyprus. In Western cultures today, most people regard songbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food. In addition, some migratory birds are protected by international treaty.
The eating of a camel is strictly prohibited by the Torah. Although the camel is a cud-chewer, the Levites still considered it "unclean". While the foot of a camel is split into two toe-like structures, it does not meet the biblical cloven hoof criterion. The meat of a camel may also have been spurned due to the camel\'s physiology. Most of a camel\'s fat is stored in its hump. This makes the rest of the body very lean, which is not good for eating.
Although there are similarities in both Islam and Judaism regarding the Kashrut and Halal foods, there are significant differences, including the consumption of camel flesh. According to the materialistic anthropologist Marvin Harris, since Arabs were nomads, camels were essential for their travels, but, in case of emergency, Muslims could not afford to starve because of the taboo.
Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish in ancient Persia at banquets, usually roasted whole. The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus, born and raised in Syria, enjoyed camel\'s heel. Camel meat is often eaten in countries such as Somalia (where it is called Hilib geyl), Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Mauritania and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. Not just the meat but also blood is a consumable item as is the case in northern Kenya where camel blood is a source of iron, vitamin D, salts and minerals (although Muslims do not drink or consume blood products). A recent report leads to some caution since cases have emerged of where eating raw camel liver has led to human plague.Bin Saeed, AA, Plague from eating raw camel liver, U.S. Center for Disease Control, <http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no09/05-0081.htm>. Retrieved on 2007-12-18 The camel is also considered a novelty in Australia - for example, a camel lasagne is available in Alice Springs).
Although reindeer is popular as a dish in Alaska, Norway, Sweden, Finland (especially sautéed reindeer), Russia and Canada, many people in the United Kingdom and Ireland are squeamish about the idea of eating reindeer meat. This relates to the popular culture myth of the reindeer as assistant to Father Christmas ("eating Rudolph"), as opposed to the “cows of the north” vision of the Northern countries.BBC - Food. Retrieved on 2006-02-08.This is Travel - Sweden\'s greetings.. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.Rudolph, the dried up reindeer. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.
Swedish astronaut Christer Fuglesang was not allowed to bring dried reindeer with him onboard a shuttle mission as it was unthinkable for the Americans so soon before Christmas. He had to go with moose instead.Christer Fuglesang redo för rymden efter 14 års träning. Retrieved on 2006-11-19. (Swedish) "Torkat renkött störde julfriden", Sydsvenska dagbladet. (Swedish)
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In Guangdong, China, cat is reportedly served along with snake and chicken in a dish called "The Dragon, Tiger and Phoenix". In desperate times, people have been known to resort to cooking and eating cats, in places where it is otherwise not usual to do so, it occurred during the Siege of Leningrad as well as in a poverty-stricken shanty town in Rosario, Argentina, in 1996 (though the much-advertised cat meal was later revealed to have been set up by media from Buenos Aires). Cats are also referenced to be eaten in hard times set in the Broadway play Sweeney Todd, where Mrs. Lovett sings "With the price of meat what it is, when you get it, if you get it...Take, for instance, Mrs. Mooney and her pie shop! Bus\'ness never better using only pussycats and toast!"
Cats are sometimes confused with civet cats, which are not felines at all. This has led Americans to accuse some Chinese manufacturers of using cat fur in their products.[citation needed] Others worry that some traditional medicines imported into the United States are of unknown animal origin. In 2001 , a shipment of cat toys imported into the United States from China were recalled and destroyed because they were trimmed with cat fur, which had just been banned in the U.S.
Some Australian Aboriginal tribes have been known to hunt the feral cats as a secondary source of meat. One tribe well known for this activity believe this cat to be either indigenous or of ancient, non-European origin. However, one recent DNA analysis has shown its genetic similarity to British shorthair cats. Feral cats in Australia are regularly hunted, but not eaten, by non-Aboriginals due to their being voracious pests. They are considered a danger to native species. There is a small minority of scientists who contend the cats are more likely to eat from rubbish dumps and other food sources provided by humans.
The term roof-hare (roof-rabbit, German Dachhase) applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another pet used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hares and cats are practically identical. The only way to distinguish them is by looking at the processus hamatus of the feline scapula, which should have a processus suprahamatus. Dar gato por liebre ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is an expression common to many Spanish-speaking countries, equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone\'s eyes" derived from this basic scam. There is an equivalent Portuguese expression Comprar gato por lebre, meaning "to buy a cat as a hare". More specifically, in Brazil, cat meat is seen as repulsive and people often shun barbecue establishments suspected of selling cat meat (although this seems unlikely, since cat meat is very different from beef). The expression churrasco de gato ("cat barbecue") is largely used in Brazil with a humorous note, especially for roadside stands that offer grilled meat on a stick (often coated with farofa), due to their poor hygiene conditions and the fact that the source of the meat is mostly unknown. Cases of passing off cat meat as lamb shish kabab in less reputable shops, are also regularly reported in Egypt.[citation needed]
During the so called Bad Times of hunger in Europe during and after WW I and WW II roof-rabbit was a common food, it\'s still proverbial.[citation needed]
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Many Hindus, particularly Brahmins, are vegetarians, abstaining from eating any meat at all, including fish (save for Brahmins in Bengal who do consume only fish and Kashmiri Pandits who consume meat and fish). Most Hindus, except some semi-tribals and Dalits in a few pockets of India, abstain from the consumption of beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in Hindu society. However, the taboo does not extend to dairy products, since the preparation of dairy products does not involve slaughtering the animal.
According to the scriptures of early Hinduism, it is a grave sin to kill a cow, to take part in its slaughter, or to eat its flesh.[citation needed] The injunctions against eating beef arises within the Vedas such as:
Atharvaveda I.16.4 "If thou slayest our cow, if our horse or our domestic, we pierce thee with the lead, so that thou shalt not slay our heroes."Hymns of the Atharva-Veda. Sacred Books of the East, volume 42 (1897). Retrieved on 2008-02-27.
Atharva Veda III.30.1 You should impart love to each other as the non-killable cow does for its calf.[citation needed]
RgVeda VII.56.17 Punish the killer of the cow and the man.
RgVeda VIII.101.15 Cow is pure, do not kill it.
RgVeda X.10.87.16 Those who kill the ‘Aghanya’, the cow which is not to be killed according to the Vedic edicts, their heads should be chopped off.
Yajur Veda XIII.49 Do not kill the cow.
YajurVeda XXX.18 Award death sentence to the killer of the cow.
RgVeda VI.28.3 states Enemy may not use any “astra” i.e. weapon on cows
RgVeda VI.28.4 states Nobody should take them to butcher house to kill them
Mahabharata- Shantiparva 262.47 Cow is called ‘aghanya’ and thus non-killable. It is assumed that the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, the tilling of fields, and fuel or fertiliser that its status as a willing "caretaker" of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. The economic origins of the cow-eating taboo can be observed from etymology: The Sanskrit word for cattle is pashu, which is cognate with the Latin word pecu, from which derives words pertaining to money in Latin (and into English) : pecunia, impecunious.
Traditionally people from lower castes, like Dalits, ate beef and carabeef (buffalo). In modern times, beef-eating has gained some acceptance in various parts of India, but only by those Hindus who are sometimes considered (and sometimes even scorned) by the others as being "extra-modern" or "over-Westernized". By Indian law, the slaughter of cattle is banned in almost all Indian states except the states of Kerala and Arunachal Pradesh[citation needed]. Slaughter of cows is an extremely emotional and provocative issue for both mainstream Hindus and the followers of Hindutva.
Some ethnic Chinese may also refrain from eating cow meat, because many of them feel that it is wrong to eat an animal that was so useful in agriculture. Some Chinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef although it is not considered taboo.
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Some people, especially in Britain, Ireland and United States of America, choose not to eat veal (the meat of young cattle) due to concerns about inhumane treatment of the calves. In the UK, this taboo is waning due to a 2007 EU directive banning veal crates and anæmia-inducing diets.
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Blue crabs for sale at a market in Piraeus.
Almost all types of non-piscine seafood, such as shellfish, lobster, shrimp or crawfish, are forbidden by Judaism, and some followers of Christianity because such animals live in water but do not have both fins and scales (Leviticus 11:10-12).
As a general rule, all seafood are permissible in Islam. This is based on “Lawful to you is (the pursuit of) water-game and its use for food – for the benefit of yourselves and those who travel…” (al-Maa’idah 5:96) although there are exceptions to this rule.
As with swine, crustaceans and many other forms of non-piscine seafood are scavengers that work at filtering the water. Improperly collected or uncooked seafood can be dangerous. It is probable[verification needed] that people who lived far from the sea and had no experience in choosing proper seafood would prefer to forgo all seafood as a question of safety.
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In a number of countries around the world, apart from being kept as pets, certain breeds of dogs are slaughtered as a source of meat and specifically raised on farms for that purpose.
According to the ancient Hindu scriptures (cf. Manusmriti and medicinal texts like Sushrut-Samhita), dog\'s meat was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible—it was worthy only for the lowest of the untouchable castes — who were therefore called śvapaca (those cooking dog\'s meat).
In Islam, Prophet Muhammad, in a Hadith Al-Bukhari forbids the eating of donkey meat.Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 67: Hunting, Slaughtering. University of Souther California: USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Retrieved on 2007-05-31. The consumption of all equines is prohibited in Judaism, as equines do not have a cloven hoof.
In Western societies, elephants have often been associated with circuses and used for entertaining purposes. However, in Central and West Africa, elephants are hunted for their meat.[citation needed] Some people in Thailand also believe that eating elephant meat improves their sex lives and elephants are sometimes hunted specifically for this.BBC News - Elephants \'killed as aphrodisiac\'. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.WWF - African elephant programme. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.
Judaism prohibits the consumption of elephant meat as an unfit [for consumption] land animal, (similarly to the prohibition on camel meat) as does Islam.
Some Kikuyu and Kalenjin people of Kenya observe a taboo against the consumption of fish. The rejection of fish may be attributable to the arid conditions and associated scarcity of water. In Somalia entire tribes have a taboo on fish and would not even intermarry with tribes that do eat fish. This is probably due to cattle being the means of wealth, and fishermen seen as destitute.
Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope). (See Leviticus). Islamic laws are more flexible in this and catfishes and sharks are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish; eel is considered permitted in the majority of the Islamic schools while some forbid it.Sea Food in the Four Madhahib. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.Is Catfish Halal?. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.Is Shark Meat Halal?. Retrieved on 2007-02-16. A common interpretation regarding some of the Islamic prohibitions is that animals that "live in both worlds" may not be consumed. This applies to primarily aquatic animals that nest or breed on land.
The Greenland Norse, a civilization that lasted about 300 years following a colonization from Iceland, might have had a taboo against fish. Jared Diamond proposes this theory based on the fact that few fish bones or other remains have been found from Greenland Norse archaeological sites, and little fishing equipment. It seems they sustained themselves on agriculture, cattle, pork, goats and occasionally seal meat, in a climate that rendered such sustenance next-to impossible.
Members of the Society for Krishna Consciousness abstain from fungi and all vegetables of the onion family (Alliaceae). They believe that these excite damaging passions.[citation needed] Fungi are eschewed as they grow at night. The spice Hing is used instead of onion or garlic and provides a somewhat similar taste in their exclusively vegetarian cookery.[citation needed]
Roast guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) in Peru
Guinea pigs (cavies) were originally bred for their meat, and only became an exotic popular pet when introduced to Europe from America.Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1.
Guinea pigs, or cuy (plural cuyes), continue to be a significant part of the diet in Peru, mostly in the Andes Mountains highlands, where they are an important source of protein and a mainstay of Andean folk medicine. Indians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Delhi, India shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on guinea pig. Today guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. Vecchio, Rick. "India Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food", CBS News, 2004-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-03-12. ;Mitchell, Chip. "Guinea Pig: It\'s What\'s for Dinner", Christian Science Monitor, 2006-11-01. Retrieved on 2007-03-12.
In 2004, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in Flushing Meadows Park.Lester Haines (20 October 2004). "Big Apple stamps on guinea pigs. The Register. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. New York State allows for the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.Montefinise, Angela. "Guinea Pig Cooks Get Skewered", New York Post, 2004-10-20, pp. 10.
La Molina National Agrarian University, Peru\'s most prestigious agrarian university, has bred a larger, faster-growing variety of the animal that it hopes will prove a nutritional boon to the country, as well as a source of export income. This breed grows to about 2 kg, or at least twice the size of the native breed.Vecchio, Rick. "India Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food", CBS News, 2004-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-03-12.
The guinea pig\'s close rodent cousins, capybara and paca, are consumed as food in South America. The Catholic Church\'s taboo on eating meat during Lent does not apply to the capybara, as early missionaries gave a faulty description to the Pope, leading him to declare it a fish.[1][2]
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Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.
Horse may not be eaten by observant Jews, since under Mosaic Law, horse meat is forbidden because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. In Islamic thought, horses are generally considered makruh, i.e. the meat is not haram but the eating of it is disliked.
The eating of horse meat is a food taboo to most people in the United Kingdom, the US, and Australia, and its supply is sometimes even illegal. In the UK, this strong taboo includes banning horsemeat from commercial pet food and DNA testing of some types of salami suspected of containing donkey meat. Like lobster and camel, it is forbidden in Judaism, Hinduism, and some sects of Christianity. In 732 AD, year of the battle of Tours, which showed the emergent importance of cavalry, Pope Gregory III began an effort to stop the pagan practice of horse eating, calling it "abominable". Horses were far more necessary to stop the Muslim cavalry, threatening the Christian ascendant in Europe, with their own weapons. His edicts are based on the same scripture as the Jewish prohibitions and this ban remained unlifted until the 18th century. The people of Iceland allegedly expressed reluctance to embrace Christianity for some time largely over the issue of giving up horse meat.[verification needed]
Horse meat was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The primary concern of the authorities at the time was to prevent it being marketed to the unwary as beef.
However, it is fairly common in Scandinavia and parts of continental Europe, and is considered a delicacy in Japan, where it is also eaten raw as a type of sashimi. Horse meat was also very popular in Malta until a few years ago, and a few horse meat shops still exist and a few restaurants serve it for locals and tourists.Carolyn Bain (2004). [Excerpt Malta & Gozo]. Lonely Planet, 56. Retrieved on 2007-09-14. “Did you know? Many of the village restaurants specialising in rabbit also feature horse meat on their menu.”
Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most proscribed. Historically, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger — almost never as a common part of their diet.
Very few customarily eat the placenta after the newborn\'s birth, but those who advocate placentophagy in humans, mostly in modern America and Europe, Hawaii, China, and the Pacific Islands believe that eating the placenta prevents postpartum depression and other pregnancy complications. A variety of recipes are known to exist for preparing placenta for eating.[3] A placenta develops from the same sperm and egg cell that form the fetus, and contains cells that are genetically equivalent to those of the newborn child.
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Except for certain locusts and related species, insects are not considered kosher. Islam also allows the consumption of locusts, which are eaten in certain parts of Arabia today.[citation needed] Many find the consumption of insects to be disgusting rather than immoral. In particular, some insects and insect larvae, such as weevils and maggots, are associated with food spoilage.
Many different kinds of insects have traditionally been consumed as food in non-European cultures, including locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets, and larvae such as caterpillars, bee grubs and witchetty grubs. For example, grasshoppers (inago) and bee larvae (hachinoko) are eaten in some regions of Japan, and silkworm larvae (beondegi in Korean or nhộng in Vietnamese) are a popular snack food in these countries. Mopane worms, a species of caterpillar, are an important protein source in South Africa. Bugs, as well as spiders, are popular all over Southeast Asia. In Mexican cuisine, insects such as chapulines and jumiles are considered "pre-hispanic cuisine", representative of the diets of indigenous peoples prior to the Spanish conquest.
Casu marzu is a type of cheese made in Sardinia, Italy that has been deliberately cultivated with the larvae of the cheese fly to change the characteristics of the cheese.
Western taboos against insects as a food source generally do not apply to honey (concentrated nectar which has been regurgitated by bees). For example, honey is considered kosher even though honeybees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the Talmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not make the honey, the flower does, and it is only stored in bees. On the other hand, many vegans avoid honey as they would any other animal product.
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Islamic and Judaic law forbids any portion that is cut from a live animal. Even in cultures that do not prescribe ritual methods of livestock slaughter, the consumption of animals that are still alive is often seen as barbaric. Notable exceptions are ikizukuri and oyster. These forms of sashimi have been banned in some countries.
Another notable exception is shrimp. In Shanghai, China, and surrounding areas, live shrimp is a common dish served both in homes and restaurants. The shrimp are usually served in a bowl of alcohol, which makes the shrimp sluggish and complacent. Local belief is that live shrimp are "healthier" than those served "already dead" or cooked.
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Heads, brains, trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.
Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the well-known steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom.
In countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States, on the other hand, many people are squeamish about eating offal. In these countries, organ meats that are considered edible in other cultures are more often regarded as fit only for processing into pet food under the euphemism "meat by-products". Except for liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialties; for example, tripe as menudo or mondongo among Latinos, chitterlings in the southern states, scrapple in the Mid-Atlantic region, and beef testicles called Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west.
In some regions, such as the EU, brains and other organs which can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the foodchain as specified risk materials.
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Until around the mid-20th century, opossums and raccoons were widely eaten game animals in the United States. Today, these animals are generally hunted and trapped for their fur and occasionally eaten, especially in the southern United States. Even older editions of The Joy of Cooking feature recipes for cooking opossum and raccoon. Their meat is considered to be rich in protein and is used to make stews, cuisine, and specialty dishes. The consumption of their meat is usually abstained; since these animals are frequent scavengers, omnivores, and the fact that some raccoons are being kept as exotic pets.
Opossums often remind people of rats, and might be considered an unclean animal to eat.
Because raccoons have a vague relation to dogs and bears, some cultures may consider eating raccoon meat comparable to eating dog meat.
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Consumption of pigs is forbidden among Muslims, Jews, Seventh-day Adventists, and others. There are various theories concerning the origins of this taboo (e.g. Qur\'an 16:115, Biblical injunctions in Leviticus 11,7-8 and Deuteronomy 14,8), but none have been universally accepted.
In the 19th century some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina. This theory still circulates outside scientific circles, but is now rejected by most anthropologists.
Materialistic beliefs attempt to prove that the pig taboo is just a product of practical considerations. The late Marvin Harris, in particular, posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require far more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.
One theory regarding the Jewish ban on pork relates to the suffering of pigs when being slaughtered. Unlike a cow, which has both vein and artery at the front of the neck, a pig has the artery behind the neck bone. With a cow, this allows it to fall unconscious before pain is registered; with a pig, as both vein and artery cannot be severed simultaneously, pain is felt.
A common explanation to the fact that pigs are widely considered unclean in the Middle East is that they are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cows, horses, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. In most, though not all cases, mammals do not eat the meat of other meat-eaters; consumption of pigs by humans would thus seem unnatural.
It is often said that pig flesh is the closest thing in nature to human flesh, and in the past some peoples of Papua New Guinea used a phrase which translated as "long pig" to refer to human flesh. Pigs have also been considered for xenotransplantation, as their internal organs are remarkably similar to those of humans.
One other explanation for pork taboos given by some scholars[attribution needed] is that some foods are prohibited so that humans will understand that they have limitations, basically as a reminder that they must keep to the discipline of their Creator, and that they should not take lightly their obligation to steward all the Earth\'s species well. This explanation is not universally accepted. There is also a controversial theory that there might have been a Scottish pork taboo many centuries ago.
The consumption of monkeys and apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, mandrills and guenons is quite common in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa.National Geographic News: Consuming Nature Pt1. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.National Geographic News: Consuming Nature Pt2. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.CNN - Growing demand for \'bushmeat\' threatens great apes. Retrieved on 2006-09-06.Ape Alliance - Bushmeat working group. Retrieved on 2006-09-06. Bonobos (also known as pygmy chimpanzees), have been extensively hunted in Congo to the level that they are now considered an endangered species. In certain parts of Congo the hand and feet of gorillas are regarded as a delicacy and are served to special guests. Monkeys are also eaten in southeast Asia (especially Indonesia). Some consider the consumption of primates to be too close to human cannibalism due to the similarity of our own species. The similarity increases the danger of viruses. Most of it is "bushmeat" or caught from the wild, in areas of high primate populations such as Central Africa and southeast Asia. One of the major theories for the origin of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in humans is the eating of primate meat infected with a similar virus.
The book of Leviticus in the Bible classifies the rabbit as unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (often loosely translated "chew the cud" in English).Leviticus 11:6Do Rabbits Chew the Cud?. Geoscience Research Institute. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.Are Rabbits Erroneously Called Ruminants in the Bible?. Bible Study Manuals. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.
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In most Western cultures, rats and mice are considered either unclean vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of plague. However, rats are commonly eaten in rural Thailand, Vietnam and other parts of Indochina. Cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) and some species of field mice are a rich source of protein in Africa. Bamboo rats are also commonly eaten in the poorer parts of Southeast Asia
In Ghana, Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) as "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is is a close relative of porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert.Thryonomys swinderianus. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Retrieved on 2007-07-18. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because an outbreak at least nine human cases of monkeypox , an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.US Bars Imports of "Akrantie". ghanaweb.com (12 June, 2003). Retrieved on 2007-07-18.
Historically, rats and mice have also been eaten in the West during times of shortage or emergency, such as during the Battle of Vicksburg and the Siege of Paris. Dormice were also domesticated and raised for food in Ancient Rome. In some Asian countries, mice are eaten, and go by the name of vole. In France, rats bred in the wine stores of Gironde were cooked with the fire of broken wine barrels and eaten, dubbed as cooper\'s entrecôte. In some communities the muskrat (which is not a rat at all) is hunted for its meat (and fur) (e.g. some parts of Flanders); see also under "Fish" for consumption of beaver tails.
Snails have been eaten for thousands of years, beginning in the Pleistocene. They are especially abundant in Capsian sites in North Africa but are also found throughout the Mediterranean region in archaeological sites dating between 12 000 and 6000 years ago.
